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| === B ===
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| {| align=center
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| {{o}} [[Bacon, Francis]]: Early modern philosopher advocating empirical science.
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| {{o}} [[Badiou, Alain]]: Contemporary French thinker on being and event.
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| {{o}} [[Behavioralism]]: Quantitative approach to political behaviour
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Behaviorism]]: Psychological doctrine explaining behaviour without mental states
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Bentham, Jeremy]]: Utilitarian who equated moral value with pleasure and pain.
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| {{o}} [[Berkeley, George]]: Idealist philosopher asserting that existence depends on perception.
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| {{o}} [[Biologism]]: Interpretation of human life solely in biological terms
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Bioethics]]: Study of ethical issues in medicine and life sciences.
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| {{o}} [[Bolzano, Bernard]]: Logician who developed early ideas of set theory.
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| {{o}} [[Buddhism]]: Dharmic religion and philosophy focused on overcoming suffering
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Butler, Judith]]: Philosopher known for gender performativity theory.
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| {{o}} [[Boredom]]: Phenomenological experience studied by Kierkegaard and Heidegger.
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| {{o}} [[Brain in a vat]]: Skeptical scenario questioning external reality.
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| {{o}} [[Brentano, Franz]]: Philosopher who reintroduced the concept of intentionality.
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| {{o}} [[Buber, Martin]]: Philosopher of dialogue emphasising I–Thou relations.
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| {{o}} [[Buddhist ethics]]: Moral principles based on compassion and mindfulness.
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| |}
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| {{TOC}}
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| === C ===
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| {| align=center
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| {{o}} [[Camus, Albert]]: Novelist and philosopher of the absurd.
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| {{o}} [[Categorical imperative]]: Kant’s universal moral principle.
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| {{o}} [[Causality]]: Relation of cause and effect.
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| {{o}} [[Certainty]]: Epistemic state of indubitability.
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| {{o}} [[Chomsky, Noam]]: Linguist and philosopher known for generative grammar.
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| {{o}} [[Cicero]]: Roman orator who popularised Stoicism and natural law.
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| {{o}} [[Compatibilism]]: View that free will is compatible with determinism.
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| {{o}} [[Confucianism]]: Chinese ethical and political philosophy.
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| {{o}} [[Consciousness]]: Subjective awareness of mental states.
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| {{o}} [[Consequentialism]]: Ethics judging actions by their outcomes.
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| {{o}} [[Constructivism]]: Epistemic view that knowledge is constructed.
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| {{o}} [[Continental philosophy]]: Tradition emphasising history, culture and critique.
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| {{o}} [[Contractualism]]: Moral theory based on hypothetical agreements.
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| {{o}} [[Cosmopolitanism]]: Idea that individuals belong to a global community.
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| {{o}} [[Cynicism]]: Ancient school advocating virtue and asceticism.
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| {{o}} [[Cyrenaics]]: Hedonist school founded by Aristippus.
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| {{o}} [[Culture]]: Complex of customs and beliefs shaping societies.
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| {{o}} [[Cognitive bias]]: Systematic deviation from rational judgement.
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| {{o}} [[Cartesianism]]: Philosophy based on Descartes’ emphasis on mind and doubt.
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| |}
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| {{TOC}}
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| === D ===
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| {| align=center
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| {{o}} [[Daoism]]: Chinese philosophy emphasizing harmony with the Tao.
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| {{o}} [[Darwinism]]: Biological evolution through natural selection
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[De Beauvoir, Simone]]: Existentialist feminist and author of “The Second Sex”.
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| {{o}} [[Deconstruction]]: Critical method analysing hidden assumptions
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Deductive reasoning]]: Deriving conclusions logically from premises.
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| {{o}} [[Defeatism]]: Acceptance of inevitable defeat
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Deism]]: Belief in a non‑interventionist creator known by reason
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Democracy]]: Political system based on rule by the people.
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| {{o}} [[Democritus]]: Atomist pre‑Socratic thinker.
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| {{o}} [[Deontologism]]: Duty‑based ethical theory
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Descriptivism]]: Theory that names refer via associated descriptions
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Determinism]]: View that all events follow necessary causal laws
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Dialectic]]: Method of argument through thesis, antithesis and synthesis.
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| {{o}} [[Dialectical materialism]]: Marxist idea that material conditions shape ideas
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Dialetheism]]: View that true contradictions exist
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Distributism]]: Economic theory advocating widespread property ownership
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Dogma]]: Authoritative belief held beyond dispute
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Dualism]]: Belief that mind and body are fundamentally distinct
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Dynamism]]: Leibniz’s view that material reality consists of active forces
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Dasein]]: Heidegger’s term for human existence.
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| {{o}} [[Derida, Jacques]]: Philosopher associated with deconstruction.
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| {{o}} [[Difference principle]]: Rawlsian rule favouring the least advantaged.
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| {{o}} [[Dworkin, Ronald]]: Legal philosopher advocating moral reading of law.
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| |}
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| {{TOC}}
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| === E ===
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| {| align=center
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| {{o}} [[Eclecticism]]: Approach drawing on multiple theories
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Egalitarianism]]: Doctrine that all persons deserve equal rights
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Egoism]]: View that actions are motivated by self‑interest
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Eliminative materialism]]: Theory rejecting folk psychology as illusory
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Emotionalism]]: Emphasis on emotion as guiding principle.
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| {{o}} [[Emotivism]]: Meta‑ethical theory that moral statements express attitudes
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Empiricism]]: Doctrine that knowledge comes from experience
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Enlightenment]]: 18th‑century movement stressing reason and progress.
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| {{o}} [[Environmentalism]]: Ethical concern for the natural environment
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Epicureanism]]: Philosophy seeking tranquility through avoidance of pain
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Epistemology]]: Study of knowledge and justified belief
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Epiphenomenalism]]: View that mental events have no causal efficacy
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Essentialism]]: Belief that entities have defining attributes
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Eternalism]]: View that past, present and future equally exist
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Ethical egoism]]: Normative view that one ought to pursue self‑interest
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Ethics]]: Branch of philosophy dealing with moral values.
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| {{o}} [[Ethnocentrism]]: Tendency to see one’s culture as central
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Eudaimonia]]: Aristotelian notion of flourishing as the highest good.
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| {{o}} [[Evidentialism]]: Epistemic theory linking belief justification to evidence.
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| {{o}} [[Existentialism]]: Movement emphasising individual freedom and meaning.
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| {{o}} [[Externalism]]: View that justification may depend on factors outside the agent.
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| |}
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| {{TOC}}
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| === F ===
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| {| align=center
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| {{o}} [[Fallibilism]]: Doctrine that knowledge is always provisional
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Falsifiability]]: Criterion that scientific theories must admit possible refutation
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Fascism]]: Authoritarian nationalist ideology
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Fatalism]]: View that human actions cannot alter predetermined outcomes
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Feminism]]: Movement seeking gender equality and women’s rights
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Fideism]]: Religious view holding faith above reason
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Finalism]]: Theory that events are defined by an end goal
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Formalism]]: Approach emphasising form and rules, especially in math and law
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Foundationalism]]: Epistemic view that knowledge rests on basic beliefs
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[French materialism]]: Enlightenment view combining empiricism and associationism
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Freudianism]]: Psychoanalytic view stressing repression and the unconscious
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Frege, Gottlob]]: Logician who distinguished sense and reference.
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| {{o}} [[Free will]]: Ability to choose freely despite causal chains.
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| {{o}} [[Functionalism]]: Theory that mental states are defined by their causal roles
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Foucault, Michel]]: Historian who analysed power, discourse and subjectivity.
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| {{o}} [[Frankfurt School]]: Group developing critical theory of society.
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| {{o}} [[Friendship]]: Ethical concept emphasised by Aristotle.
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| {{o}} [[Foundationalism]]: Repetition intentionally omitted.
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| |}
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| {{TOC}}
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| === G ===
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| {| align=center
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| {{o}} [[Gadamer, Hans-Georg]]: Hermeneutic philosopher stressing dialogue.
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| {{o}} [[Game theory]]: Mathematical study of strategic interaction.
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| {{o}} [[Genealogy]]: Foucaultian method tracing origins of values.
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| {{o}} [[General will]]: Rousseau’s notion of collective decision.
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| {{o}} [[Genetic fallacy]]: Error of assessing a belief by its origin.
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| {{o}} [[Gestalt]]: View that wholes are more than the sum of parts.
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| {{o}} [[Golden mean]]: Aristotelian idea of virtue as a mean between extremes.
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| {{o}} [[Good and evil]]: Moral duality in ethics and religion.
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| {{o}} [[Gödel, Kurt]]: Logician known for incompleteness theorems.
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| {{o}} [[Grace]]: Theological notion of unmerited divine favor.
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| {{o}} [[Greek philosophy]]: Ancient tradition including pre‑Socratics, Plato and Aristotle.
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| {{o}} [[Grounding]]: Metaphysical relation of dependence.
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| {{o}} [[Guattari, Félix]]: Co‑author of “A Thousand Plateaus”.
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| {{o}} [[Gurdjieff]]: Mystic teaching self‑development and awakening.
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| {{o}} [[Gnosticism]]: Ancient belief in hidden spiritual knowledge.
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| {{o}} [[Gene drive]]: Example of applied ethics.
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| |}
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| {{TOC}}
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| === H ===
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| {| align=center
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| {{o}} [[Habermas, Jürgen]]: Philosopher of communicative rationality.
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| {{o}} [[Hedonism]]: Ethical view that pleasure is the highest good
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Hegelianism]]: Philosophy of Hegel emphasising rational reality
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Henotheism]]: Devotion to one god while acknowledging others
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Heraclitus]]: Pre‑Socratic who taught that all is flux.
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| {{o}} [[Hereditarianism]]: View that mental traits are inherited
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Hermeneutics]]: Study of interpretation, especially texts.
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| {{o}} [[Hinduism]]: Ancient religion with diverse philosophies
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Historical determinism]]: Claim that history is determined by prior events
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Historical materialism]]: Marxist method explaining societal change via economic forces
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Historicism]]: Theory emphasising context and development in understanding
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Holism]]: View that systems cannot be understood merely by examining parts
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Humanism]]: Ethical stance prioritising human values
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Hylozoism]]: Idea that all matter has life
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Husserl, Edmund]]: Founder of phenomenology.
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| {{o}} [[Hume, David]]: Empiricist critic of causation and induction.
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| {{o}} [[Hypatia]]: Alexandrian philosopher martyred for her learning.
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| |}
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| {{TOC}}
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| === I ===
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| {| align=center
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| {{:D-Tab}}
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| {{o}} [[Idealism]]: View that reality is fundamentally mental
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Ignosticism]]: Position that questions the concept of God
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Illusionism]]: Belief that the material world is a collection of mind‑induced appearances
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Immaterialism]]: Doctrine denying the existence of material objects
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Immoralism]]: Attitude challenging conventional moral codes
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Immortalism]]: Concept of unending human life
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Incompatibilism]]: Belief that free will and determinism cannot both be true
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Indeterminism]]: View that not all events are predetermined
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Individualism]]: Emphasis on individual rights over collective claims
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Induction]]: Inference from particular cases to general laws.
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| {{o}} [[Innatism]]: Theory that the mind is born with ideas
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Instrumentalism]]: View that theories are tools rather than literal truths
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Intellectualism]]: Emphasis on reason and learning
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Intentionality]]: Aboutness of mental states.
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| {{o}} [[Internalism]]: View that justification depends only on factors accessible to the thinker
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Intentionalism]]: Theory exploring whether humans author their actions
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Interactionism]]: Position that mind and body causally interact
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Interpretivism]]: View that knowledge is based on interpretation
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Intrinsicism]]: Belief that value is inherent, not assigned
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Intuitionism]]: Philosophy of mathematics focusing on mental construction
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Irrationalism]]: Philosophy privileging intuition over rationality
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Irrealism]]: Combination of phenomenalism and physicalism
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Islamism]]: Political ideology seeking to apply Islamic law to state affairs
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| en.wikipedia.org
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| .
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| {{o}} [[Ibn Khaldun]]: Historian and philosopher of social dynamics.
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| {{o}} [[Ibn Rushd]]: See Averroes under A.
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| {{o}} [[Ibn Sina]]: See Avicenna under A.
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| |}
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| {{TOC}}
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| === J ===
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| {| align=center
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| {{o}} [[Jacobi, Friedrich]]: German philosopher critic of rationalism.
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| {{o}} [[Jainism]]: Indian philosophy advocating non‑violence and many‑sided truth.
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| {{o}} [[James, William]]: Pragmatist psychologist and philosopher.
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| {{o}} [[Jaspers, Karl]]: Existentialist emphasising transcendence.
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| {{o}} [[Judgement]]: Act of forming a belief or conclusion.
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| {{o}} [[Justice]]: Principle of fairness in social arrangements.
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| {{o}} [[Just war theory]]: Doctrine regulating the morality of warfare.
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| {{o}} [[Justification]]: Process of providing reasons for beliefs.
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| {{o}} [[Jus cogens]]: Peremptory norms in international law.
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| {{o}} [[Juxtaposition]]: Placement of ideas for comparison.
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| |}
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| {{TOC}}
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|
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| === K ===
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| {| align=center
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| {{o}} [[Kabbalah]]: Jewish mystical tradition.
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| {{o}} [[Kalam]]: Islamic rational theology.
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| {{o}} [[Kant, Immanuel]]: Philosopher of critical idealism.
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| {{o}} [[Karma]]: Buddhist and Hindu law of moral causation.
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| {{o}} [[Kierkegaard, Søren]]: Founder of Christian existentialism.
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| {{o}} [[Knowledge]]: Justified true belief or other theories.
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| {{o}} [[Koan]]: Paradoxical story used in Zen training.
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| {{o}} [[Kripke, Saul]]: Logician known for modal semantics.
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| {{o}} [[Kropotkin, Peter]]: Anarchist theorist of mutual aid.
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| {{o}} [[Kuhn, Thomas]]: Historian of science who coined “paradigm shift”.
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| {{o}} [[Kymlicka, Will]]: Political philosopher on multiculturalism.
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| {{o}} [[Kyoto School]]: Japanese philosophical movement blending Zen and Western thought.
| |
| |}
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|
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| {{TOC}}
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|
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| === L ===
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|
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| {| align=center
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| {{:D-Tab}}
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| {{o}} [[Laozi]]: Legendary author of the “Tao Te Ching”.
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| {{o}} [[Language]]: System of symbols and rules used for communication.
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| {{o}} [[Laws of thought]]: Classical logical principles of identity, non‑contradiction and excluded middle.
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| {{o}} [[Leibniz, Gottfried]]: Philosopher of monads and pre‑established harmony.
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| {{o}} [[Leninism]]: Revolutionary theory derived from Marxism.
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| {{o}} [[Liberation philosophy]]: Latin American movement emphasising social justice.
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| {{o}} [[Libertarianism]]: Political philosophy prioritising individual liberty.
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| {{o}} [[Linguistic turn]]: 20th‑century emphasis on language in philosophy.
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| {{o}} [[Locke, John]]: Empiricist who theorised natural rights and tabula rasa.
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| {{o}} [[Logic]]: Study of valid reasoning.
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| {{o}} [[Logical positivism]]: Movement asserting that meaningful statements are empirically verifiable.
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| {{o}} [[Logos]]: Greek term meaning word, reason or principle.
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| {{o}} [[Lucretius]]: Epicurean poet explaining atomism.
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| {{o}} [[Lyotard, Jean-François]]: Postmodern theorist of metanarratives.
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| {{o}} [[Liberalism]]: Political doctrine stressing individual rights.
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| {{o}} [[Laissez-faire]]: Economic system of minimal government intervention.
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| {{o}} [[Logical atomism]]: Russell and Wittgenstein’s view of reality as independent facts.
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| |}
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|
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| {{TOC}}
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|
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| === M ===
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|
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| {| align=center
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| {{:D-Tab}}
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| {{o}} [[Machiavelli, Niccolò]]: Author of “The Prince”, known for realism in politics.
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| {{o}} [[Mahāyāna]]: Branch of Buddhism emphasising universal salvation.
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| {{o}} [[Maimonides]]: Jewish philosopher who reconciled faith and reason.
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| {{o}} [[Maoism]]: Chinese communist ideology derived from Marxism–Leninism.
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| {{o}} [[Materialism]]: Doctrine that matter is the fundamental substance.
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| {{o}} [[Mathematical logic]]: Study of logic using formal mathematical tools.
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| {{o}} [[McTaggart, J.M.E.]]: Philosopher who argued time is unreal.
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| {{o}} [[Meaning of life]]: Philosophical question about life’s purpose.
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| {{o}} [[Meditation]]: Practice of focused attention and mindfulness.
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| {{o}} [[Meta‑ethics]]: Analysis of the nature of moral judgments.
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| {{o}} [[Metaphysics]]: Study of being, existence and reality beyond physics.
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| {{o}} [[Mill, John Stuart]]: Utilitarian advocate of liberty and women’s rights.
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| {{o}} [[Mind–body problem]]: Question of how mental and physical states relate.
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| {{o}} [[Miracle]]: Event inexplicable by natural causes.
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| {{o}} [[Modal logic]]: Logic dealing with necessity and possibility.
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| {{o}} [[Monism]]: View that reality is fundamentally one.
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| {{o}} [[Monotheism]]: Belief in a single deity.
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| {{o}} [[Moral realism]]: View that moral statements can be true or false.
| |
| {{o}} [[Moral relativism]]: View that moral norms are culturally dependent.
| |
| {{o}} [[Moral skepticism]]: Doubt about the possibility of moral knowledge.
| |
| {{o}} [[Moses]]: Religious leader central to Jewish and Christian tradition.
| |
| {{o}} [[Mysticism]]: Pursuit of direct union with the divine.
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| {{o}} [[Multiculturalism]]: Recognition and respect for diverse cultures.
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| {{o}} [[Mutualism]]: Proudhon’s economic theory advocating reciprocity.
| |
| {{o}} [[Myth of Sisyphus]]: Camus’s essay on absurdity and revolt.
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| {{o}} [[Mencius]]: Confucian philosopher emphasising innate human goodness.
| |
| {{o}} [[Mohism]]: Chinese philosophy advocating universal love and meritocracy.
| |
| |}
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|
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| {{TOC}}
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|
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| === N ===
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|
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| {| align=center
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| {{:D-Tab}}
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| {{o}} [[Nagarjuna]]: Mahayana philosopher of emptiness.
| |
| {{o}} [[Nativism]]: View that certain skills are innate rather than learned.
| |
| {{o}} [[Natural law]]: Theory that moral principles derive from human nature.
| |
| {{o}} [[Naturalism]]: Doctrine that everything arises from natural causes.
| |
| {{o}} [[Necessary and sufficient conditions]]: Concepts used to analyse definitions.
| |
| {{o}} [[Neo‑Kantianism]]: Revival of Kant’s philosophy in the 19th century.
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| {{o}} [[Neoplatonism]]: Late ancient synthesis of Plato with mysticism.
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| {{o}} [[Nietzsche, Friedrich]]: Philosopher who declared “God is dead” and critiqued morality.
| |
| {{o}} [[Nihilism]]: Belief that life lacks inherent meaning or value.
| |
| {{o}} [[Nominalism]]: Denial of the existence of universals outside the mind.
| |
| {{o}} [[Normative ethics]]: Study of ethical standards and principles.
| |
| {{o}} [[Noumenon]]: In Kant, the thing‑in‑itself beyond perception.
| |
| {{o}} [[Nous]]: Greek term for mind or intellect.
| |
| {{o}} [[Nussbaum, Martha]]: Philosopher of capabilities and emotions.
| |
| {{o}} [[Narrative identity]]: Conception of self created through life stories.
| |
| {{o}} [[Neopragmatism]]: Contemporary form of pragmatism influenced by Dewey and Quine.
| |
| {{o}} [[Non‑violence]]: Ethical stance rejecting physical force.
| |
| {{o}} [[New Age]]: Spiritual movement blending esotericism and self‑help.
| |
| |}
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|
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| {{TOC}}
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|
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| === O ===
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|
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| {| align=center
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| {{:D-Tab}}
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| {{o}} [[Objectivism]]: Ayn Rand’s philosophy of rational self‑interest.
| |
| {{o}} [[Objectivity]]: Impartiality free from bias or subjective influence.
| |
| {{o}} [[Occam’s razor]]: Principle favouring the simplest explanation.
| |
| {{o}} [[Ockham, William of]]: Scholastic philosopher known for nominalism.
| |
| {{o}} [[Omnibenevolence]]: Attribute of being all‑good.
| |
| {{o}} [[Omnipotence]]: Attribute of unlimited power.
| |
| {{o}} [[Omniscience]]: Attribute of unlimited knowledge.
| |
| {{o}} [[Ontology]]: Study of being and existence.
| |
| {{o}} [[Open society]]: Popper’s vision of a free, democratic society.
| |
| {{o}} [[Open theism]]: View that God does not know the future exhaustively.
| |
| {{o}} [[Original position]]: Rawls’ hypothetical situation for choosing principles of justice.
| |
| {{o}} [[Orphism]]: Mystical Greek cult emphasising purification.
| |
| {{o}} [[Orthodoxy]]: Conformity to established religious beliefs.
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| {{o}} [[Outcome utilitarianism]]: Synonym for act utilitarianism.
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| |}
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|
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| {{TOC}}
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|
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| === P ===
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|
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| {| align=center
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| {{o}} [[Panentheism]]: Belief that the divine pervades but exceeds the universe.
| |
| {{o}} [[Panpsychism]]: View that all matter has a mental aspect.
| |
| {{o}} [[Paradigm]]: Framework of thought guiding research.
| |
| {{o}} [[Paradox]]: Statement leading to a contradiction or logical tension.
| |
| {{o}} [[Parfit, Derek]]: Moral philosopher known for identity and ethics.
| |
| {{o}} [[Paternalism]]: Limiting autonomy purportedly for someone’s own good.
| |
| {{o}} [[Pascal’s wager]]: Argument that belief in God is a rational bet.
| |
| {{o}} [[Peirce, Charles S.]]: Founder of pragmatism and semiotics.
| |
| {{o}} [[Perception]]: Process of interpreting sensory information.
| |
| {{o}} [[Peripatetic school]]: Philosophical school founded by Aristotle.
| |
| {{o}} [[Phenomenology]]: Study of structures of consciousness.
| |
| {{o}} [[Philosophy of language]]: Investigation of meaning and reference.
| |
| {{o}} [[Philosophy of mind]]: Inquiry into the nature of mental phenomena.
| |
| {{o}} [[Philosophy of science]]: Study of scientific methods and aims.
| |
| {{o}} [[Philosophical zombie]]: Hypothetical being lacking consciousness.
| |
| {{o}} [[Physicalism]]: View that everything is physical or depends on the physical.
| |
| {{o}} [[Plato]]: Author of dialogues introducing the theory of forms.
| |
| {{o}} [[Platonism]]: Endorsement of abstract objects like numbers.
| |
| {{o}} [[Pleasure]]: Positive sensation valued in hedonistic ethics.
| |
| {{o}} [[Political philosophy]]: Study of the state, liberty and justice.
| |
| {{o}} [[Popper, Karl]]: Philosopher of science advocating falsifiability.
| |
| {{o}} [[Pragmatism]]: Philosophy emphasising practical consequences.
| |
| {{o}} [[Predicate logic]]: Formal system using quantifiers and variables.
| |
| {{o}} [[Presentism]]: View that only the present exists.
| |
| {{o}} [[Process philosophy]]: Metaphysics treating change and process as fundamental.
| |
| {{o}} [[Protagoras]]: Sophist known for the claim that man is the measure.
| |
| {{o}} [[Proudhon, Pierre]]: Anarchist who declared “property is theft”.
| |
| {{o}} [[Psychologism]]: Error of reducing logic or mathematics to psychology.
| |
| {{o}} [[Pyrrhonism]]: Ancient skeptical school.
| |
| {{o}} [[Pythagoras]]: Philosopher and mathematician associated with harmony of numbers.
| |
| {{o}} [[Pythagoreanism]]: Mystical interpretation of numbers and ratios.
| |
| {{o}} [[Panarchy]]: Governance system of overlapping voluntary jurisdictions.
| |
| {{o}} [[Panlogism]]: Hegelian idea that reality is logical.
| |
| {{o}} [[Pantheism]]: Doctrine identifying God with the universe.
| |
| {{o}} [[Personal identity]]: Problem of what makes a person the same over time.
| |
| {{o}} [[Public reason]]: Rawlsian concept of shared rational justification.
| |
| {{o}} [[Punishment]]: Sanctions imposed for wrongdoing.
| |
| {{o}} [[Postmodernism]]: Critical attitude toward grand narratives and fixed meanings.
| |
| {{o}} [[Post‑structuralism]]: Movement questioning structuralist assumptions.
| |
| |}
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|
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| {{TOC}}
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|
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| === Q ===
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| {| align=center
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| {{o}} [[Qualia]]: Subjective qualities of conscious experience.
| |
| {{o}} [[Quantifier]]: Logical operator expressing “for all” or “there exists”.
| |
| {{o}} [[Quantum logic]]: Non‑classical logic inspired by quantum mechanics.
| |
| {{o}} [[Quasi‑realism]]: Meta‑ethical view treating moral statements as if factual.
| |
| {{o}} [[Quiddity]]: Essence or “whatness” of a thing.
| |
| {{o}} [[Quine, W.V.O.]]: Philosopher of language and naturalized epistemology.
| |
| {{o}} [[Quietism]]: Belief that philosophical problems dissolve through silence.
| |
| {{o}} [[Question‑begging]]: Fallacy where the conclusion is assumed in the premise.
| |
| {{o}} [[Quantum ethics]]: Exploration of ethical implications of quantum theory.
| |
| {{o}} [[Quintessence]]: Hypothetical fifth element or essential principle.
| |
| |}
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|
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| {{TOC}}
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|
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| === R ===
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|
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| {| align=center
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| {{o}} [[Radical empiricism]]: William James’s view that relations are experienced directly.
| |
| {{o}} [[Rational choice theory]]: Model of decision‑making based on rational agents.
| |
| {{o}} [[Rationalism]]: Doctrine that reason is the primary source of knowledge.
| |
| {{o}} [[Rawls, John]]: Political philosopher of justice as fairness.
| |
| {{o}} [[Realism]]: Belief in an external reality independent of perception.
| |
| {{o}} [[Reciprocity]]: Principle that mutual benefit guides social cooperation.
| |
| {{o}} [[Reductionism]]: Analysis of complex phenomena to simpler components.
| |
| {{o}} [[Reification]]: Treating abstract concepts as concrete.
| |
| {{o}} [[Relativism]]: View that truth or values depend on perspective.
| |
| {{o}} [[Religious pluralism]]: Acceptance of multiple religious paths.
| |
| {{o}} [[Renaissance humanism]]: Revival of classical learning and human dignity.
| |
| {{o}} [[Responsibility]]: Moral accountability for actions.
| |
| {{o}} [[Rights]]: Entitlements or freedoms recognised by moral or legal systems.
| |
| {{o}} [[Rousseau, Jean‑Jacques]]: Philosopher of the social contract and natural goodness.
| |
| {{o}} [[Rule utilitarianism]]: Form of utilitarianism applying rules that maximise utility.
| |
| {{o}} [[Russell, Bertrand]]: Analytic philosopher and logician.
| |
| {{o}} [[Ryle, Gilbert]]: Philosopher who critiqued Cartesian dualism.
| |
| {{o}} [[Romanticism]]: Movement valuing emotion and individual imagination.
| |
| |}
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|
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| {{TOC}}
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|
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| === S ===
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|
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| {| align=center
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| {{o}} [[Sartre, Jean‑Paul]]: Existentialist who stressed freedom and responsibility.
| |
| {{o}} [[Satya]]: Concept of truth in Indian philosophy.
| |
| {{o}} [[Schopenhauer, Arthur]]: Philosopher of pessimism and the will.
| |
| {{o}} [[Schrödinger’s cat]]: Thought experiment illustrating quantum superposition.
| |
| {{o}} [[Secularism]]: Separation of religious institutions from state.
| |
| {{o}} [[Scientism]]: Belief that empirical science is the only path to knowledge.
| |
| {{o}} [[Sein und Zeit]]: Heidegger’s work on being and time.
| |
| {{o}} [[Sensation]]: Raw sensory input before interpretation.
| |
| {{o}} [[Sentience]]: Capacity for conscious experience.
| |
| {{o}} [[Sentimentalism]]: View that moral judgments arise from feelings.
| |
| {{o}} [[Skepticism]]: Doubt regarding knowledge claims.
| |
| {{o}} [[Social contract]]: Idea that political authority arises from agreement.
| |
| {{o}} [[Social constructivism]]: View that social phenomena are created by humans.
| |
| {{o}} [[Socialism]]: Economic system where means of production are collectively owned.
| |
| {{o}} [[Sociobiology]]: Study of biological basis of social behaviour.
| |
| {{o}} [[Soft determinism]]: Compatibilist stance that free will exists within determinism.
| |
| {{o}} [[Solipsism]]: View that only one’s own mind is certain to exist.
| |
| {{o}} [[Sophists]]: Ancient teachers who charged for instruction.
| |
| {{o}} [[Spinoza, Baruch]]: Rationalist who identified God with nature.
| |
| {{o}} [[Stoicism]]: Hellenistic philosophy focusing on virtue and control of passions.
| |
| {{o}} [[Structuralism]]: Method of analysis focusing on underlying structures.
| |
| {{o}} [[Subjectivism]]: View that value or truth is dependent on subjects.
| |
| {{o}} [[Substance]]: Underlying entity in metaphysics.
| |
| {{o}} [[Supervenience]]: Relation where higher‑level properties depend on lower‑level ones.
| |
| {{o}} [[Surrealism]]: Artistic movement exploring unconscious processes.
| |
| {{o}} [[Synechism]]: Peirce’s doctrine of continuity.
| |
| {{o}} [[Syncretism]]: Blending of different religious or philosophical beliefs.
| |
| {{o}} [[System]]: Organised set of interrelated elements.
| |
| {{o}} [[Symbolic logic]]: Formal logic using symbols to represent propositions.
| |
| {{o}} [[Syllogism]]: Deductive argument with two premises and a conclusion.
| |
| {{o}} [[Synesthesia]]: Experiencing one sense through another; used metaphorically in aesthetics.
| |
| {{o}} [[Singer, Peter]]: Contemporary utilitarian ethicist.
| |
| {{o}} [[Seneca]]: Stoic philosopher and Roman statesman.
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
| {{TOC}}
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|
| |
| === T ===
| |
|
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| {| align=center
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| {{o}} [[Taoism]]: Chinese philosophy emphasising harmony and non‑action.
| |
| {{o}} [[Tautology]]: Statement true by logical form.
| |
| {{o}} [[Teilhard de Chardin]]: Jesuit who synthesised evolution and theology.
| |
| {{o}} [[Teleology]]: Explanation in terms of purpose.
| |
| {{o}} [[Teleological argument]]: Argument for God from design.
| |
| {{o}} [[Temporal logic]]: Logical system dealing with time.
| |
| {{o}} [[Thales]]: Pre‑Socratic philosopher who sought natural explanations.
| |
| {{o}} [[Theism]]: Belief in a personal deity.
| |
| {{o}} [[Theodicy]]: Defence of God’s goodness despite evil.
| |
| {{o}} [[Theology]]: Study of the divine.
| |
| {{o}} [[Theory of forms]]: Plato’s doctrine of abstract, eternal universals.
| |
| {{o}} [[Thomism]]: Philosophical system based on Aquinas.
| |
| {{o}} [[Transcendence]]: Existence beyond ordinary experience.
| |
| {{o}} [[Transcendental idealism]]: Kant’s view that we know appearances, not things‑in‑themselves.
| |
| {{o}} [[Truth]]: Property of statements corresponding to reality.
| |
| {{o}} [[Turing test]]: Test of a machine’s ability to exhibit intelligent behaviour.
| |
| {{o}} [[Tyranny]]: Oppressive government lacking legitimacy.
| |
| |}
| |
|
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| {{TOC}}
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|
| |
| === U ===
| |
|
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| {| align=center
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| |
| {{o}} [[Ubermensch]]: Nietzsche’s ideal of self‑overcoming.
| |
| {{o}} [[Unconscious]]: Part of the mind outside awareness.
| |
| {{o}} [[Under-determination]]: Thesis that evidence may support multiple theories.
| |
| {{o}} [[Understanding]]: Faculty of grasping meaning or reasons.
| |
| {{o}} [[Underdetermination]]: See above; repetition.
| |
| {{o}} [[Universals]]: Properties or relations shared by multiple things.
| |
| {{o}} [[Universalism]]: Belief in universal moral principles.
| |
| {{o}} [[Unitarianism]]: Christian theology rejecting the Trinity.
| |
| {{o}} [[Unity of science]]: Idea that sciences share a common base and methodology.
| |
| {{o}} [[Utilitarianism]]: Ethical theory evaluating actions by their consequences for happiness.
| |
| {{o}} [[Utopianism]]: Visionary ideal of a perfect society.
| |
| {{o}} [[Upanishads]]: Ancient Indian texts exploring ultimate reality.
| |
| {{o}} [[Uselessness]]: Daoist notion of the virtue of being useless.
| |
| {{o}} [[Ultramontanism]]: Doctrine emphasising papal authority.
| |
| |}
| |
|
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| {{TOC}}
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|
| |
| === V ===
| |
|
| |
| {| align=center
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| {{:D-Tab}}
| |
| {{o}} [[Validity]]: Property of arguments whose conclusions follow necessarily.
| |
| {{o}} [[Value theory]]: Study of what is good or valuable.
| |
| {{o}} [[Varieties of Religious Experience]]: William James’s work on mysticism.
| |
| {{o}} [[Vedanta]]: Indian school centred on the Upanishads.
| |
| {{o}} [[Vedas]]: Ancient Hindu scriptures forming theological foundations.
| |
| {{o}} [[Verification principle]]: Positivist test of meaning through empirical verifiability.
| |
| {{o}} [[Verificationism]]: Doctrine that only verifiable statements are meaningful.
| |
| {{o}} [[Virtue]]: Admirable characteristic or excellence.
| |
| {{o}} [[Virtue ethics]]: Normative theory focusing on character.
| |
| {{o}} [[Virtù]]: Machiavellian quality of pragmatic leadership.
| |
| {{o}} [[Volition]]: Faculty or act of making a choice.
| |
| {{o}} [[Voltaire]]: Enlightenment critic of intolerance and dogma.
| |
| {{o}} [[Voluntarism]]: View that will precedes intellect in human action.
| |
| {{o}} [[Vitalism]]: Doctrine that life is more than physical or chemical processes.
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
| {{TOC}}
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|
| |
| === W ===
| |
|
| |
| {| align=center
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| {{:D-Tab}}
| |
| {{o}} [[War and Peace]]: Tolstoy’s novel exploring free will and history.
| |
| {{o}} [[Weber, Max]]: Sociologist who analysed rationalisation and authority.
| |
| {{o}} [[Weil, Simone]]: Mystical philosopher emphasising attention and grace.
| |
| {{o}} [[Whitehead, Alfred North]]: Process philosopher and mathematician.
| |
| {{o}} [[Will]]: Faculty of choosing or striving.
| |
| {{o}} [[Will to power]]: Nietzsche’s concept of fundamental human drive.
| |
| {{o}} [[Wisdom]]: Judicious application of knowledge.
| |
| {{o}} [[Wittgenstein, Ludwig]]: Philosopher of language and meaning.
| |
| {{o}} [[Worldview]]: Comprehensive perspective on life and the universe.
| |
| {{o}} [[World‑soul]]: Idea of a collective or cosmic spirit.
| |
| {{o}} [[Women philosophers]]: Contribution of women to philosophical discourse.
| |
| {{o}} [[Wu wei]]: Daoist notion of effortless action.
| |
| {{o}} [[Wicca]]: Modern pagan witchcraft sometimes viewed philosophically.
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
| {{TOC}}
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|
| |
| === X ===
| |
|
| |
| {| align=center
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| {{:D-Tab}}
| |
| {{o}} [[Xenophanes]]: Poet–philosopher who criticised anthropomorphic gods.
| |
| {{o}} [[Xenophon]]: Historian whose works include Socratic dialogues.
| |
| {{o}} [[Xunzi]]: Confucian thinker who believed human nature is bad.
| |
| {{o}} [[Xenophobia]]: Fear or hatred of foreigners; topic in social philosophy.
| |
| {{o}} [[Xenophilia]]: Love or admiration of foreign cultures.
| |
| {{o}} [[X‑phi]]: Experimental philosophy using empirical methods.
| |
| {{o}} [[Xavier Zubiri]]: Spanish philosopher of reality and transcendence.
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
| {{TOC}}
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|
| |
| === Y ===
| |
|
| |
| {| align=center
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| {{:D-Tab}}
| |
| {{o}} [[Yang Zhu]]: Chinese philosopher promoting self‑preservation.
| |
| {{o}} [[Yin and yang]]: Daoist symbol of complementary forces.
| |
| {{o}} [[Yi Jing]]: “Book of Changes”, ancient divination text.
| |
| {{o}} [[Young Hegelians]]: Group criticising Hegel from the left.
| |
| {{o}} [[Yoga]]: Indian discipline aiming for union and liberation.
| |
| {{o}} [[Yūgen]]: Japanese aesthetic of subtle profundity.
| |
| {{o}} [[Yu‑Lan Fung]]: Chinese scholar who wrote on history of Chinese philosophy.
| |
| {{o}} [[Yamas]]: Five moral vows in yoga ethics.
| |
| {{o}} [[Yi (righteousness)]]: Confucian virtue of moral obligation.
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
| {{TOC}}
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|
| |
| === Z ===
| |
|
| |
| {| align=center
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| {{:D-Tab}}
| |
| {{o}} [[Zeitgeist]]: Spirit of the age or cultural climate.
| |
| {{o}} [[Zen]]: Mahayana school focusing on meditation and direct insight.
| |
| {{o}} [[Zeno of Citium]]: Founder of Stoicism.
| |
| {{o}} [[Zeno of Elea]]: Philosopher known for paradoxes of motion.
| |
| {{o}} [[Zeno’s paradoxes]]: Arguments challenging notions of space and time.
| |
| {{o}} [[Zhu Xi]]: Neo‑Confucian synthesizer of classical teachings.
| |
| {{o}} [[Zhuangzi]]: Daoist philosopher emphasising spontaneity.
| |
| {{o}} [[Zoroastrianism]]: Ancient Persian religion stressing cosmic dualism.
| |
| {{o}} [[Žižek, Slavoj]]: Contemporary theorist blending psychoanalysis and Marxism.
| |
| {{o}} [[Zarathustra]]: Prophet of Zoroastrianism; Nietzsche’s fictional teacher.
| |
| {{o}} [[Zombie]]: Hypothetical being with behaviour but no consciousness.
| |
| {{o}} [[Zero-sum]]: Situation where one’s gain is another’s loss.
| |
| |}
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|
