Glossary Learning English
A
- Ablation: Surface loss of ice or snow through melting, sublimation, or wind erosion.
- Abyssal Plain: Vast, flat floor of the deep ocean basin.
- Accretionary Wedge: Sedimentary mass scraped from a subducting plate at a convergent margin.
- Active Margin: Tectonically active continental edge where earthquakes and volcanism are common.
- Aeolian Process: Landform change driven by wind-transported sediment.
- Albedo: Fraction of solar radiation reflected by a surface.
- Alluvial Fan: Fan-shaped deposit formed where a high-gradient stream loses energy.
- Alpine Glacier: River of ice constrained to mountain valleys.
- Altiplano: High plateau region, notably in the central Andes.
- Anabranch: Secondary channel that rejoins the main river downstream.
- Anticline: Up-arching fold with oldest strata at its core.
- Aquiclude: Geologic layer that blocks groundwater flow.
- Aquifer: Geologic unit able to store and transmit groundwater.
- Archipelago: Chain or cluster of islands.
- Arid Region: Zone receiving less than 250 mm annual precipitation.
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B
- Back-Arc Basin: Seafloor depression behind a volcanic island arc.
- Bajada: Coalesced alluvial fans along a mountain front.
- Bar: Ridge of sand or gravel deposited in a stream or along a coast.
- Barchan Dune: Crescent-shaped dune with horns pointing downwind.
- Basalt: Fine-grained mafic volcanic rock.
- Batholith: Massive intrusive igneous body exposed over >100 km².
- Baymouth Bar: Sand spit that seals a bay from the open sea.
- Beaufort Scale: Empirical measure of wind speed based on sea-state.
- Benioff Zone: Dipping plane of seismicity along a subducting slab.
- Biogeography: Study of species distribution over space and time.
- Biome: Major ecological community type such as tundra or rainforest.
- Biosphere: Global sum of all ecosystems and living organisms.
- Blizzard: Severe snowstorm with sustained winds ≥56 km h⁻¹.
- Bog: Acidic, waterlogged peatland dominated by sphagnum moss.
- Braided River: Network of multiple shifting channels separated by bars.
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C
- Caldera: Large depression formed after volcanic roof collapse.
- Capillary Fringe: Saturated zone just above the water table.
- Carbonatite: Rare igneous rock composed largely of carbonate minerals.
- Catena: Sequence of soils down a slope linked by drainage.
- Catastrophism: Theory that Earth’s surface was shaped by sudden, short-lived events.
- Cave: Natural subterranean cavity large enough for human entry.
- Cenozoic Era: Geological time unit spanning the last 66 million years.
- Chinook Wind: Warm, dry downslope wind on the leeward side of mountains.
- Cirque: Amphitheater-shaped hollow at a glacier’s head.
- Clastic Rock: Sedimentary rock composed of fragments of pre-existing rocks.
- Cloud Forest: Tropical montane forest with persistent or frequent cloud cover.
- Coastal Plain: Low-lying flatland adjacent to a seacoast.
- Cone of Depression: Conical lowering of water table around a pumped well.
- Continental Drift: Historical concept of lateral movement of continents over geologic time.
- Cryosphere: Portions of Earth where water is frozen year-round.
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D
- D delta: Mouth deposit of a river entering a standing body of water.
- Dark Sky Reserve: Protected area with minimal light pollution for astronomy.
- Deflation: Removal of loose particles by wind.
- Deglaciation: Glacial ice retreat and melting phase.
- Denudation: Collective processes that wear away Earth’s surface.
- Dendritic Drainage: River pattern resembling tree branches.
- Desert Pavement: Surface covered by closely packed gravel after fine particles blow away.
- Detrital Mineral: Mineral grain derived from the erosion of pre-existing rocks.
- Diapir: Mobile mass piercing overlying strata, often salt or magma.
- Diastrophism: Deformation of Earth’s crust by tectonic forces.
- Dike: Tabular igneous intrusion cutting across bedding.
- Doline: Closed depression in karst terrain formed by solution or collapse.
- Drainage Divide: Topographic ridge separating adjacent drainage basins.
- Drumlin: Streamlined hill of glacial till indicating ice-flow direction.
- Dust Storm: Dense, turbulent cloud of wind-lifted soil particles.
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E
- Earthflow: Slow, viscous downslope movement of saturated soil.
- Ebb Tide: Period when tidal water level falls.
- Ecoregion: Large area of distinct environmental conditions and communities.
- Eddy: Circular current moving contrary to the main flow.
- Eolianite: Rock formed from lithified wind-blown sand.
- El Niño: Periodic warming of eastern Pacific influencing global climate.
- End Moraine: Ridge of till marking glacier’s furthest advance.
- Endorheic Basin: Drainage basin with no outlet to the ocean.
- Ephemeral Stream: Channel flowing only after precipitation events.
- Epicenter: Point on Earth’s surface directly above an earthquake focus.
- Epishelf Lake: Saline-freshwater interface lake trapped behind sea ice.
- Erosion: Transport of weathered material by water, wind, ice, or gravity.
- Estuary: Semi-enclosed coastal body where freshwater mixes with seawater.
- Eustasy: Global sea-level change due to water-mass variations.
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F
- Fault Scarp: Steep slope formed by vertical movement on a fault.
- Fetch: Uninterrupted distance over water that wind blows generating waves.
- Firn: Granular snow that survives a melt season and densifies into ice.
- Fjord: Deep, glacially carved valley flooded by the sea.
- Floodplain: Flat land adjacent to a river subject to periodic inundation.
- Fluvial Terrace: Relict alluvial surface above current river level.
- Föhn Wind: Warm, dry downslope wind in the Alps.
- Fold Belt: Region extensively deformed by compressional tectonics.
- Footwall: Rock mass below a dipping fault plane.
- Forearc Basin: Depression between a volcanic arc and an accretionary wedge.
- Fossil Water: Ancient groundwater sealed in an aquifer for millennia.
- Freeze-Thaw Weathering: Rock disintegration from water expansion on freezing.
- Fringing Reef: Coral reef directly attached to a shoreline.
- Fumarole: Vent emitting steam and volcanic gases.
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G
- Gabion: Cage filled with rocks for erosion control.
- Gale: Wind of Beaufort force 8-9 (62–88 km h⁻¹).
- Geoid: Hypothetical sea-level surface extended under the continents.
- Geothermal Gradient: Rate of temperature increase with depth inside Earth.
- Geyser: Intermittent hot-water fountain expelled by geothermal heat.
- Glacial Isostasy: Crustal rebound after ice-sheet unloading.
- Glaciofluvial: Pertaining to meltwater streams emanating from glaciers.
- Gneiss: Banded, high-grade metamorphic rock.
- Grabben: Down-dropped crustal block bounded by normal faults.
- Granite: Coarse-grained felsic intrusive igneous rock.
- Grassland: Biome dominated by herbaceous vegetation with scarce trees.
- Green Belt: Zone of protected open land around a city.
- Groin: Shore-perpendicular structure trapping littoral drift.
- Guyot: Flat-topped seamount eroded near sea level then subsided.
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H
- Habitat Fragmentation: Breakdown of continuous habitat into smaller, isolated patches.
- Hadley Cell: Tropical atmospheric circulation cell rising near the equator and descending at ~30° latitude.
- Hanging Valley: Tributary glacial valley perched above the main valley floor.
- Headland: Coastal promontory of resistant rock jutting into the sea.
- Heat Island: Urban area significantly warmer than surrounding countryside.
- Heliotrope Wind: Local airflow generated by daytime heating of mountain slopes.
- Horst: Uplifted crustal block between parallel normal faults.
- Hue Saturation: Chromatic property influencing color intensity in remote-sensing imagery.
- Humus: Stable organic matter component of soil.
- Hydraulic Action: Erosive power of flowing water on channel banks.
- Hydrograph: Plot of river discharge versus time during a runoff event.
- Hydrosphere: All water on, under, and above Earth’s surface.
- Hypolimnion: Cold, dense bottom layer of stratified lake water.
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I
- Iceberg: Floating mass of glacier-derived ice in the ocean.
- Ice Jam: Accumulation of fragmented river ice obstructing flow.
- Igneous Rock: Rock crystallized from molten magma or lava.
- Illuviation: Deposition of leached material in lower soil horizons.
- Infiltration Capacity: Maximum rate at which soil can absorb rainfall.
- Interfluve: Ridge or high ground separating two valleys.
- Interglacial: Warm interval between glacial periods within an ice age.
- Intermontane Basin: Lowland ringed by mountain ranges.
- Intertidal Zone: Coastal area alternately exposed and submerged by tides.
- Inversion Layer: Atmospheric layer where temperature increases with height.
- Isentrope: Line of constant potential temperature on a weather chart.
- Isohyet: Line connecting points of equal rainfall.
- Isostasy: Equilibrium of Earth’s lithosphere floating on the asthenosphere.
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J
K
- Kame: Irregular hill of sand and gravel deposited by retreating glacier.
- Kame Terrace: Assemblage of kames forming a valley-side bench.
- Karst: Landscape shaped by dissolution of soluble rocks such as limestone.
- Katabatic Wind: Cold, downslope airflow driven by gravity.
- Kettle Lake: Water-filled depression left after buried ice melts.
- Kinetic Sand Transport: Movement of sand grains in saltation and creep.
- Klippé: Isolated remnant of a thrust sheet surrounded by autochthonous rocks.
- Knob-and-Kettle Topography: Hill-depression landscape of hummocky glacial deposits.
- Komatiite: Ultramafic volcanic rock high in magnesium; Archaean.
- Köppen Climate Classification: Widely used global climate categorization system.
- Kuroshio Current: Warm western boundary current of the North Pacific.
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L
- Lagoon: Shallow coastal waterbody separated from the ocean by a barrier.
- Lahar: Volcanic mudflow composed of pyroclasts and water.
- La Niña: Periodic cooling of eastern Pacific influencing global weather.
- Lake Effect Snow: Heavy snowfall produced as cold air passes over a warm lake.
- Laminar Flow: Smooth, parallel fluid motion with little mixing.
- Laterite: Iron-rich tropical soil developed under intense weathering.
- Latitude: Angular distance north or south of the equator.
- Laurasia: Northern supercontinent of late Paleozoic–early Mesozoic time.
- Leeward: Side sheltered from prevailing wind.
- Lenticular Cloud: Lens-shaped cloud formed by mountain-wave uplift.
- Limestone Pavement: Flat, exposed limestone with clints and grikes.
- Lithification: Conversion of sediment into solid rock.
- Lithosphere: Rigid outer shell of Earth comprising crust and upper mantle.
- Loess: Wind-blown silt deposit forming fertile soils.
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M
- Magma Chamber: Subsurface reservoir of molten rock beneath a volcano.
- Magnetosphere: Region around a planet dominated by its magnetic field.
- Mantle Plume: Stationary, buoyant upwelling of hot mantle material.
- Maritime Climate: Temperature regime moderated by proximity to the ocean.
- Mass Movement: Downslope transport of soil or rock under gravity.
- Meander: Sinuous bend in a river channel.
- Mesa: Flat-topped, steep-sided landform in arid regions.
- Metamorphic Facies: Mineral assemblage indicating specific pressure-temperature conditions.
- Microclimate: Climate of a small, specific place differing from the surrounding area.
- Midocean Ridge: Submarine mountain chain formed at divergent plate boundaries.
- Milankovitch Cycles: Periodic changes in Earth’s orbit influencing climate.
- Monsoon: Seasonal reversal of winds bringing heavy rain to subtropics.
- Moraine: Accumulation of glacial debris deposited by ice.
- Mudflat: Coastal sedimentary environment exposed at low tide.
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N
- Nappe: Large sheet of rock thrust far from its original position.
- Neap Tide: Tide of minimal range occurring when sun and moon are at right angles.
- Nearshore Zone: Coastal area extending from breaker line to shoreline.
- Necrotic Zone: Hypoxic coastal water with large-scale marine die-off.
- Negative Feedback: Self-limiting response stabilizing a climatological system.
- Neritic Province: Shallow marine environment over the continental shelf.
- Neuston: Organisms living at the air-water interface.
- Nickpoint: Abrupt change in river gradient like a waterfall.
- Nivation Hollow: Depression formed by snow-related weathering and meltwater erosion.
- Noctilucent Cloud: High-altitude mesospheric cloud visible during twilight.
- Normal Fault: Extension-related fracture with hanging wall moving down.
- Nunatak: Mountain peak protruding through an ice sheet.
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O
- Oasis: Fertile area in a desert fed by groundwater or a spring.
- Obduction: Overthrusting of oceanic lithosphere onto continental crust.
- Ocean Gyre: Large-scale circular ocean current system.
- Oolite: Sedimentary rock composed of ooids formed by concentric precipitation.
- Orographic Lift: Air ascent forced by topography causing precipitation.
- Orthoclase: Common potassium feldspar in igneous rocks.
- Outcrop: Exposed section of bedrock at Earth’s surface.
- Outwash Plain: Stratified sand and gravel deposited by glacial meltwater.
- Ox-Bow Lake: Abandoned meander loop cut off from a river.
- Oxidation Weathering: Chemical reaction of minerals with oxygen, forming oxides.
- Ozone Layer: Stratospheric region rich in O₃ absorbing ultraviolet radiation.
- Ozone Hole: Seasonal thinning of stratospheric ozone over polar regions.
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P
- Paleo-Channel: Remnant of a former river course filled with sediment.
- Paleomagnetism: Fossil magnetism in rocks recording past magnetic fields.
- Palsa: Peat hummock with an ice core found in subarctic bogs.
- Parabolic Dune: U-shaped dune with horns pointing upwind.
- Perched Water Table: Localized saturated zone above the regional water table.
- Periglacial: Environmental processes and landforms associated with cold, non-glacial climates.
- Permafrost: Ground remaining below 0 °C for at least two consecutive years.
- Phreatic Eruption: Steam explosion when water contacts hot magma.
- Photon Belt: High-energy ring of charged particles around a planet.
- Piedmont Glacier: Ice spreading at the foot of mountains from valley glaciers.
- Placer Deposit: Concentration of heavy minerals by fluvial or marine processes.
- Playa: Dry lake bed in a desert basin.
- Plinian Eruption: Explosive volcanic event ejecting ash high into the stratosphere.
- Plume Cloud: Towering ash or smoke column from a volcanic or industrial source.
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Q
- Quaking Bog: Water-saturated peat mat that trembles when walked upon.
- Quarry: Open-pit mine for stone or gravel extraction.
- Quartzite: Hard, non-foliated metamorphic rock from sandstone.
- Quaternary Period: Most recent geologic period, last 2.6 million years.
- Queue Spillway: Emergency overflow channel for reservoirs during floods.
- Quicksand: Liquefied soil incapable of supporting weight.
- Quiet Sun: Period of low solar magnetic activity.
- Quoin: Structural corner stone resisting weathering (architectural geology).
- Quoll Corridor: Wildlife linkage in fragmented Australian habitats.
- Quorum Sensing: Bacterial chemical communication influencing marine biofilms.
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R
- Radiolarite: Siliceous sedimentary rock from radiolarian skeletons.
- Rain Shadow: Dry region leeward of a mountain range.
- Raised Beach: Former shoreline elevated by isostatic rebound.
- Reef Crest: Highest point of a coral reef receiving maximum wave energy.
- Refugia: Areas where species survive unfavorable conditions.
- Regolith: Loose, heterogeneous material covering solid rock.
- Relief Inversion: Low areas become topographic highs due to differential erosion.
- Residual Soil: Soil developed in place from weathering of underlying bedrock.
- Retrograde Orbit: Satellite motion opposite the planet’s rotation (planetary geology).
- Ria Coast: Drowned river valley coastline.
- Rift Valley: Linear depression formed by extensional tectonics.
- Rip Current: Narrow, seaward flow of water from surf zone.
- River Capture: Diversion of one stream into the drainage of another.
- Rock Glacier: Lobe of ice-cemented rock debris creeping downslope.
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S
- Sabkha: Coastal or inland salt flat in arid regions.
- Saline Intrusion: Movement of seawater into freshwater aquifers.
- Sandur: Icelandic term for glacial outwash plain.
- Saprolite: Deeply weathered, soft bedrock retaining original structure.
- Savanna: Tropical grassland with scattered trees.
- Seafloor Spreading: Creation of new oceanic crust at divergent boundaries.
- Seamount: Submarine mountain rising ≥1000 m above seafloor.
- Serac: Tower of unstable glacial ice.
- Shear Zone: Region of intense rock deformation due to differential movement.
- Shield Volcano: Broad, gently sloping volcano built of fluid lava flows.
- Sinter: Siliceous or calcareous deposit from hot springs.
- Slackwater Deposit: Fine sediment left by waning floodwaters.
- Slide Creep: Extremely slow mass-movement on gentle slopes.
- Sublimation: Phase change of ice directly to vapor.
- Swash Zone: Area of wave uprush and backwash on a beach face.
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T
- Talus Slope: Accumulation of angular rock fragments at a cliff base.
- Tarn: Small mountain lake in a cirque.
- Tectonic Escape: Lateral movement of crustal blocks away from a collisional zone.
- Tectonostratigraphic Terrane: Crustal block with distinct geologic history sutured to a continent.
- Temperate Rainforest: Rainy, mild coastal forest at mid-latitudes.
- Terminal Moraine: Ridge marking maximum glacier advance.
- Thermocline: Layer of rapid temperature change in a body of water.
- Thermokarst: Landscape of irregular ground from thawing permafrost ice.
- Throughfall: Rainwater dripping from vegetation to the ground.
- Tide Gauge: Instrument measuring sea-level changes.
- Tombolo: Sandbar linking an island to the mainland.
- Topographic Inversion: Former depressions become highs due to resistant fill.
- Tsunami: Long-wavelength sea wave generated by seafloor disturbance.
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U
- U-Shaped Valley: Glacially carved valley with steep sides and broad floor.
- Ultramafic Rock: Igneous rock very low in silica, high in Mg and Fe.
- Unconfined Aquifer: Groundwater body open to the atmosphere through porous material.
- Undercutting: Erosional removal of material at the base of a slope or riverbank.
- Underfit Stream: Small river occupying a large valley carved by greater discharge.
- Uniformitarianism: Principle that present processes operated similarly in the past.
- Unstable Isotope: Radioactive nuclide useful for geologic dating.
- Upwelling: Ascending deep, cold, nutrient-rich ocean water.
- Urban Canyon: Street flanked by tall buildings altering wind and temperature.
- Uvala: Large closed depression formed by coalesced dolines in karst.
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V
- Vadose Zone: Unsaturated zone between land surface and water table.
- Varve: Annual couplet of sediment layers in a glacial lake.
- Ventifact: Wind-polished rock with faceted surfaces.
- Vernal Pool: Seasonal wetland filling in spring and drying in summer.
- Vertical Exaggeration: Scale distortion used in cross-section diagrams.
- Vesicle: Gas bubble cavity in volcanic rock.
- Vinicunca: “Rainbow Mountain” in Peru exhibiting striking mineral bands.
- Vog: Volcanic smog of sulfurous gases and aerosols.
- Volcaniclastic: Fragmental material produced by volcanic activity.
- Vulnerability Index: Composite measure of exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity to hazards.
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W
- Wadi: Dry desert channel that carries water only during rare rains.
- Warping: Broad, gentle bending of Earth’s crust.
- Water Balance: Accounting of water inputs and outputs for a system.
- Water Table: Upper surface of the saturated groundwater zone.
- Wave Cut Platform: Flat bench eroded at a cliff base by marine action.
- Weathering: Physical and chemical breakdown of rocks in situ.
- Weichselian Glaciation: Last glacial phase in northern Europe.
- Wet Bulb Temperature: Lowest temperature reachable by evaporative cooling.
- Whitecap: Foamy crest of a breaking wave.
- Willow Spillway: Biotechnical stabilization using live willow bundles (river engineering).
- Wind Gap: Waterless pass once occupied by a stream.
- Windward: Side exposed to prevailing wind.
- Woody Debris Jam: Mass of fallen trees obstructing a river channel.
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X
- Xenolith: Rock fragment enclosed within an igneous intrusion.
- Xeric Habitat: Environment characterized by low moisture availability.
- Xerophyte: Plant adapted to arid conditions.
- Xyloid Coal: Coal preserving original wood structure.
- Xylophilous Fungus: Wood-loving fungus important in decomposition.
- Xylophage: Organism that feeds on wood, influencing forest nutrient cycles.
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Y
Z
- Zeolite: Hydrated aluminosilicate mineral used in water purification.
- Zero-Fold Axis: Line of no folding separating opposing structural vergence.
- Zibar: Small, low-amplitude eolian sand ridge found in deserts.
- Zinciferous Soil: Soil enriched in zinc from ore bodies.
- Zone of Accumulation: Portion of a glacier where snowfall exceeds melting.
- Zoogeography: Branch of biogeography focused on animal distribution.
- Zuyderzee Works: Dutch engineering project converting an estuary into freshwater lake.
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