Glossary Learning English
A
Ablation : Surface loss of ice or snow through melting, sublimation, or wind erosion.
Abyssal Plain : Vast, flat floor of the deep ocean basin.
Accretionary Wedge : Sedimentary mass scraped from a subducting plate at a convergent margin.
Active Margin : Tectonically active continental edge where earthquakes and volcanism are common.
Aeolian Process : Landform change driven by wind-transported sediment.
Albedo : Fraction of solar radiation reflected by a surface.
Alluvial Fan : Fan-shaped deposit formed where a high-gradient stream loses energy.
Alpine Glacier : River of ice constrained to mountain valleys.
Altiplano : High plateau region, notably in the central Andes.
Anabranch : Secondary channel that rejoins the main river downstream.
Anticline : Up-arching fold with oldest strata at its core.
Aquiclude : Geologic layer that blocks groundwater flow.
Aquifer : Geologic unit able to store and transmit groundwater.
Archipelago : Chain or cluster of islands.
Arid Region : Zone receiving less than 250 mm annual precipitation.
B
Back-Arc Basin : Seafloor depression behind a volcanic island arc.
Bajada : Coalesced alluvial fans along a mountain front.
Bar : Ridge of sand or gravel deposited in a stream or along a coast.
Barchan Dune : Crescent-shaped dune with horns pointing downwind.
Basalt : Fine-grained mafic volcanic rock.
Batholith : Massive intrusive igneous body exposed over >100 km².
Baymouth Bar : Sand spit that seals a bay from the open sea.
Beaufort Scale : Empirical measure of wind speed based on sea-state.
Benioff Zone : Dipping plane of seismicity along a subducting slab.
Biogeography : Study of species distribution over space and time.
Biome : Major ecological community type such as tundra or rainforest.
Biosphere : Global sum of all ecosystems and living organisms.
Blizzard : Severe snowstorm with sustained winds ≥56 km h⁻¹.
Bog : Acidic, waterlogged peatland dominated by sphagnum moss.
Braided River : Network of multiple shifting channels separated by bars.
C
Caldera : Large depression formed after volcanic roof collapse.
Capillary Fringe : Saturated zone just above the water table.
Carbonatite : Rare igneous rock composed largely of carbonate minerals.
Catena : Sequence of soils down a slope linked by drainage.
Catastrophism : Theory that Earth’s surface was shaped by sudden, short-lived events.
Cave : Natural subterranean cavity large enough for human entry.
Cenozoic Era : Geological time unit spanning the last 66 million years.
Chinook Wind : Warm, dry downslope wind on the leeward side of mountains.
Cirque : Amphitheater-shaped hollow at a glacier’s head.
Clastic Rock : Sedimentary rock composed of fragments of pre-existing rocks.
Cloud Forest : Tropical montane forest with persistent or frequent cloud cover.
Coastal Plain : Low-lying flatland adjacent to a seacoast.
Cone of Depression : Conical lowering of water table around a pumped well.
Continental Drift : Historical concept of lateral movement of continents over geologic time.
Cryosphere : Portions of Earth where water is frozen year-round.
D
D delta : Mouth deposit of a river entering a standing body of water.
Dark Sky Reserve : Protected area with minimal light pollution for astronomy.
Deflation : Removal of loose particles by wind.
Deglaciation : Glacial ice retreat and melting phase.
Denudation : Collective processes that wear away Earth’s surface.
Dendritic Drainage : River pattern resembling tree branches.
Desert Pavement : Surface covered by closely packed gravel after fine particles blow away.
Detrital Mineral : Mineral grain derived from the erosion of pre-existing rocks.
Diapir : Mobile mass piercing overlying strata, often salt or magma.
Diastrophism : Deformation of Earth’s crust by tectonic forces.
Dike : Tabular igneous intrusion cutting across bedding.
Doline : Closed depression in karst terrain formed by solution or collapse.
Drainage Divide : Topographic ridge separating adjacent drainage basins.
Drumlin : Streamlined hill of glacial till indicating ice-flow direction.
Dust Storm : Dense, turbulent cloud of wind-lifted soil particles.
E
Earthflow : Slow, viscous downslope movement of saturated soil.
Ebb Tide : Period when tidal water level falls.
Ecoregion : Large area of distinct environmental conditions and communities.
Eddy : Circular current moving contrary to the main flow.
Eolianite : Rock formed from lithified wind-blown sand.
El Niño : Periodic warming of eastern Pacific influencing global climate.
End Moraine : Ridge of till marking glacier’s furthest advance.
Endorheic Basin : Drainage basin with no outlet to the ocean.
Ephemeral Stream : Channel flowing only after precipitation events.
Epicenter : Point on Earth’s surface directly above an earthquake focus.
Epishelf Lake : Saline-freshwater interface lake trapped behind sea ice.
Erosion : Transport of weathered material by water, wind, ice, or gravity.
Estuary : Semi-enclosed coastal body where freshwater mixes with seawater.
Eustasy : Global sea-level change due to water-mass variations.
F
Fault Scarp : Steep slope formed by vertical movement on a fault.
Fetch : Uninterrupted distance over water that wind blows generating waves.
Firn : Granular snow that survives a melt season and densifies into ice.
Fjord : Deep, glacially carved valley flooded by the sea.
Floodplain : Flat land adjacent to a river subject to periodic inundation.
Fluvial Terrace : Relict alluvial surface above current river level.
Föhn Wind : Warm, dry downslope wind in the Alps.
Fold Belt : Region extensively deformed by compressional tectonics.
Footwall : Rock mass below a dipping fault plane.
Forearc Basin : Depression between a volcanic arc and an accretionary wedge.
Fossil Water : Ancient groundwater sealed in an aquifer for millennia.
Freeze-Thaw Weathering : Rock disintegration from water expansion on freezing.
Fringing Reef : Coral reef directly attached to a shoreline.
Fumarole : Vent emitting steam and volcanic gases.
G
Gabion : Cage filled with rocks for erosion control.
Gale : Wind of Beaufort force 8-9 (62–88 km h⁻¹).
Geoid : Hypothetical sea-level surface extended under the continents.
Geothermal Gradient : Rate of temperature increase with depth inside Earth.
Geyser : Intermittent hot-water fountain expelled by geothermal heat.
Glacial Isostasy : Crustal rebound after ice-sheet unloading.
Glaciofluvial : Pertaining to meltwater streams emanating from glaciers.
Gneiss : Banded, high-grade metamorphic rock.
Grabben : Down-dropped crustal block bounded by normal faults.
Granite : Coarse-grained felsic intrusive igneous rock.
Grassland : Biome dominated by herbaceous vegetation with scarce trees.
Green Belt : Zone of protected open land around a city.
Groin : Shore-perpendicular structure trapping littoral drift.
Guyot : Flat-topped seamount eroded near sea level then subsided.
H
Habitat Fragmentation : Breakdown of continuous habitat into smaller, isolated patches.
Hadley Cell : Tropical atmospheric circulation cell rising near the equator and descending at ~30° latitude.
Hanging Valley : Tributary glacial valley perched above the main valley floor.
Headland : Coastal promontory of resistant rock jutting into the sea.
Heat Island : Urban area significantly warmer than surrounding countryside.
Heliotrope Wind : Local airflow generated by daytime heating of mountain slopes.
Horst : Uplifted crustal block between parallel normal faults.
Hue Saturation : Chromatic property influencing color intensity in remote-sensing imagery.
Humus : Stable organic matter component of soil.
Hydraulic Action : Erosive power of flowing water on channel banks.
Hydrograph : Plot of river discharge versus time during a runoff event.
Hydrosphere : All water on, under, and above Earth’s surface.
Hypolimnion : Cold, dense bottom layer of stratified lake water.
I
Iceberg : Floating mass of glacier-derived ice in the ocean.
Ice Jam : Accumulation of fragmented river ice obstructing flow.
Igneous Rock : Rock crystallized from molten magma or lava.
Illuviation : Deposition of leached material in lower soil horizons.
Infiltration Capacity : Maximum rate at which soil can absorb rainfall.
Interfluve : Ridge or high ground separating two valleys.
Interglacial : Warm interval between glacial periods within an ice age.
Intermontane Basin : Lowland ringed by mountain ranges.
Intertidal Zone : Coastal area alternately exposed and submerged by tides.
Inversion Layer : Atmospheric layer where temperature increases with height.
Isentrope : Line of constant potential temperature on a weather chart.
Isohyet : Line connecting points of equal rainfall.
Isostasy : Equilibrium of Earth’s lithosphere floating on the asthenosphere.
J
K
Kame : Irregular hill of sand and gravel deposited by retreating glacier.
Kame Terrace : Assemblage of kames forming a valley-side bench.
Karst : Landscape shaped by dissolution of soluble rocks such as limestone.
Katabatic Wind : Cold, downslope airflow driven by gravity.
Kettle Lake : Water-filled depression left after buried ice melts.
Kinetic Sand Transport : Movement of sand grains in saltation and creep.
Klippé : Isolated remnant of a thrust sheet surrounded by autochthonous rocks.
Knob-and-Kettle Topography : Hill-depression landscape of hummocky glacial deposits.
Komatiite : Ultramafic volcanic rock high in magnesium; Archaean.
Köppen Climate Classification : Widely used global climate categorization system.
Kuroshio Current : Warm western boundary current of the North Pacific.
L
Lagoon : Shallow coastal waterbody separated from the ocean by a barrier.
Lahar : Volcanic mudflow composed of pyroclasts and water.
La Niña : Periodic cooling of eastern Pacific influencing global weather.
Lake Effect Snow : Heavy snowfall produced as cold air passes over a warm lake.
Laminar Flow : Smooth, parallel fluid motion with little mixing.
Laterite : Iron-rich tropical soil developed under intense weathering.
Latitude : Angular distance north or south of the equator.
Laurasia : Northern supercontinent of late Paleozoic–early Mesozoic time.
Leeward : Side sheltered from prevailing wind.
Lenticular Cloud : Lens-shaped cloud formed by mountain-wave uplift.
Limestone Pavement : Flat, exposed limestone with clints and grikes.
Lithification : Conversion of sediment into solid rock.
Lithosphere : Rigid outer shell of Earth comprising crust and upper mantle.
Loess : Wind-blown silt deposit forming fertile soils.
M
Magma Chamber : Subsurface reservoir of molten rock beneath a volcano.
Magnetosphere : Region around a planet dominated by its magnetic field.
Mantle Plume : Stationary, buoyant upwelling of hot mantle material.
Maritime Climate : Temperature regime moderated by proximity to the ocean.
Mass Movement : Downslope transport of soil or rock under gravity.
Meander : Sinuous bend in a river channel.
Mesa : Flat-topped, steep-sided landform in arid regions.
Metamorphic Facies : Mineral assemblage indicating specific pressure-temperature conditions.
Microclimate : Climate of a small, specific place differing from the surrounding area.
Midocean Ridge : Submarine mountain chain formed at divergent plate boundaries.
Milankovitch Cycles : Periodic changes in Earth’s orbit influencing climate.
Monsoon : Seasonal reversal of winds bringing heavy rain to subtropics.
Moraine : Accumulation of glacial debris deposited by ice.
Mudflat : Coastal sedimentary environment exposed at low tide.
N
Nappe : Large sheet of rock thrust far from its original position.
Neap Tide : Tide of minimal range occurring when sun and moon are at right angles.
Nearshore Zone : Coastal area extending from breaker line to shoreline.
Necrotic Zone : Hypoxic coastal water with large-scale marine die-off.
Negative Feedback : Self-limiting response stabilizing a climatological system.
Neritic Province : Shallow marine environment over the continental shelf.
Neuston : Organisms living at the air-water interface.
Nickpoint : Abrupt change in river gradient like a waterfall.
Nivation Hollow : Depression formed by snow-related weathering and meltwater erosion.
Noctilucent Cloud : High-altitude mesospheric cloud visible during twilight.
Normal Fault : Extension-related fracture with hanging wall moving down.
Nunatak : Mountain peak protruding through an ice sheet.
O
Oasis : Fertile area in a desert fed by groundwater or a spring.
Obduction : Overthrusting of oceanic lithosphere onto continental crust.
Ocean Gyre : Large-scale circular ocean current system.
Oolite : Sedimentary rock composed of ooids formed by concentric precipitation.
Orographic Lift : Air ascent forced by topography causing precipitation.
Orthoclase : Common potassium feldspar in igneous rocks.
Outcrop : Exposed section of bedrock at Earth’s surface.
Outwash Plain : Stratified sand and gravel deposited by glacial meltwater.
Ox-Bow Lake : Abandoned meander loop cut off from a river.
Oxidation Weathering : Chemical reaction of minerals with oxygen, forming oxides.
Ozone Layer : Stratospheric region rich in O₃ absorbing ultraviolet radiation.
Ozone Hole : Seasonal thinning of stratospheric ozone over polar regions.
P
Paleo-Channel : Remnant of a former river course filled with sediment.
Paleomagnetism : Fossil magnetism in rocks recording past magnetic fields.
Palsa : Peat hummock with an ice core found in subarctic bogs.
Parabolic Dune : U-shaped dune with horns pointing upwind.
Perched Water Table : Localized saturated zone above the regional water table.
Periglacial : Environmental processes and landforms associated with cold, non-glacial climates.
Permafrost : Ground remaining below 0 °C for at least two consecutive years.
Phreatic Eruption : Steam explosion when water contacts hot magma.
Photon Belt : High-energy ring of charged particles around a planet.
Piedmont Glacier : Ice spreading at the foot of mountains from valley glaciers.
Placer Deposit : Concentration of heavy minerals by fluvial or marine processes.
Playa : Dry lake bed in a desert basin.
Plinian Eruption : Explosive volcanic event ejecting ash high into the stratosphere.
Plume Cloud : Towering ash or smoke column from a volcanic or industrial source.
Q
Quaking Bog : Water-saturated peat mat that trembles when walked upon.
Quarry : Open-pit mine for stone or gravel extraction.
Quartzite : Hard, non-foliated metamorphic rock from sandstone.
Quaternary Period : Most recent geologic period, last 2.6 million years.
Queue Spillway : Emergency overflow channel for reservoirs during floods.
Quicksand : Liquefied soil incapable of supporting weight.
Quiet Sun : Period of low solar magnetic activity.
Quoin : Structural corner stone resisting weathering (architectural geology).
Quoll Corridor : Wildlife linkage in fragmented Australian habitats.
Quorum Sensing : Bacterial chemical communication influencing marine biofilms.
R
Radiolarite : Siliceous sedimentary rock from radiolarian skeletons.
Rain Shadow : Dry region leeward of a mountain range.
Raised Beach : Former shoreline elevated by isostatic rebound.
Reef Crest : Highest point of a coral reef receiving maximum wave energy.
Refugia : Areas where species survive unfavorable conditions.
Regolith : Loose, heterogeneous material covering solid rock.
Relief Inversion : Low areas become topographic highs due to differential erosion.
Residual Soil : Soil developed in place from weathering of underlying bedrock.
Retrograde Orbit : Satellite motion opposite the planet’s rotation (planetary geology).
Ria Coast : Drowned river valley coastline.
Rift Valley : Linear depression formed by extensional tectonics.
Rip Current : Narrow, seaward flow of water from surf zone.
River Capture : Diversion of one stream into the drainage of another.
Rock Glacier : Lobe of ice-cemented rock debris creeping downslope.
S
Sabkha : Coastal or inland salt flat in arid regions.
Saline Intrusion : Movement of seawater into freshwater aquifers.
Sandur : Icelandic term for glacial outwash plain.
Saprolite : Deeply weathered, soft bedrock retaining original structure.
Savanna : Tropical grassland with scattered trees.
Seafloor Spreading : Creation of new oceanic crust at divergent boundaries.
Seamount : Submarine mountain rising ≥1000 m above seafloor.
Serac : Tower of unstable glacial ice.
Shear Zone : Region of intense rock deformation due to differential movement.
Shield Volcano : Broad, gently sloping volcano built of fluid lava flows.
Sinter : Siliceous or calcareous deposit from hot springs.
Slackwater Deposit : Fine sediment left by waning floodwaters.
Slide Creep : Extremely slow mass-movement on gentle slopes.
Sublimation : Phase change of ice directly to vapor.
Swash Zone : Area of wave uprush and backwash on a beach face.
T
Talus Slope : Accumulation of angular rock fragments at a cliff base.
Tarn : Small mountain lake in a cirque.
Tectonic Escape : Lateral movement of crustal blocks away from a collisional zone.
Tectonostratigraphic Terrane : Crustal block with distinct geologic history sutured to a continent.
Temperate Rainforest : Rainy, mild coastal forest at mid-latitudes.
Terminal Moraine : Ridge marking maximum glacier advance.
Thermocline : Layer of rapid temperature change in a body of water.
Thermokarst : Landscape of irregular ground from thawing permafrost ice.
Throughfall : Rainwater dripping from vegetation to the ground.
Tide Gauge : Instrument measuring sea-level changes.
Tombolo : Sandbar linking an island to the mainland.
Topographic Inversion : Former depressions become highs due to resistant fill.
Tsunami : Long-wavelength sea wave generated by seafloor disturbance.
U
U-Shaped Valley : Glacially carved valley with steep sides and broad floor.
Ultramafic Rock : Igneous rock very low in silica, high in Mg and Fe.
Unconfined Aquifer : Groundwater body open to the atmosphere through porous material.
Undercutting : Erosional removal of material at the base of a slope or riverbank.
Underfit Stream : Small river occupying a large valley carved by greater discharge.
Uniformitarianism : Principle that present processes operated similarly in the past.
Unstable Isotope : Radioactive nuclide useful for geologic dating.
Upwelling : Ascending deep, cold, nutrient-rich ocean water.
Urban Canyon : Street flanked by tall buildings altering wind and temperature.
Uvala : Large closed depression formed by coalesced dolines in karst.
V
Vadose Zone : Unsaturated zone between land surface and water table.
Varve : Annual couplet of sediment layers in a glacial lake.
Ventifact : Wind-polished rock with faceted surfaces.
Vernal Pool : Seasonal wetland filling in spring and drying in summer.
Vertical Exaggeration : Scale distortion used in cross-section diagrams.
Vesicle : Gas bubble cavity in volcanic rock.
Vinicunca : “Rainbow Mountain” in Peru exhibiting striking mineral bands.
Vog : Volcanic smog of sulfurous gases and aerosols.
Volcaniclastic : Fragmental material produced by volcanic activity.
Vulnerability Index : Composite measure of exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity to hazards.
W
Wadi : Dry desert channel that carries water only during rare rains.
Warping : Broad, gentle bending of Earth’s crust.
Water Balance : Accounting of water inputs and outputs for a system.
Water Table : Upper surface of the saturated groundwater zone.
Wave Cut Platform : Flat bench eroded at a cliff base by marine action.
Weathering : Physical and chemical breakdown of rocks in situ.
Weichselian Glaciation : Last glacial phase in northern Europe.
Wet Bulb Temperature : Lowest temperature reachable by evaporative cooling.
Whitecap : Foamy crest of a breaking wave.
Willow Spillway : Biotechnical stabilization using live willow bundles (river engineering).
Wind Gap : Waterless pass once occupied by a stream.
Windward : Side exposed to prevailing wind.
Woody Debris Jam : Mass of fallen trees obstructing a river channel.
X
Xenolith : Rock fragment enclosed within an igneous intrusion.
Xeric Habitat : Environment characterized by low moisture availability.
Xerophyte : Plant adapted to arid conditions.
Xyloid Coal : Coal preserving original wood structure.
Xylophilous Fungus : Wood-loving fungus important in decomposition.
Xylophage : Organism that feeds on wood, influencing forest nutrient cycles.
Y
Z
Zeolite : Hydrated aluminosilicate mineral used in water purification.
Zero-Fold Axis : Line of no folding separating opposing structural vergence.
Zibar : Small, low-amplitude eolian sand ridge found in deserts.
Zinciferous Soil : Soil enriched in zinc from ore bodies.
Zone of Accumulation : Portion of a glacier where snowfall exceeds melting.
Zoogeography : Branch of biogeography focused on animal distribution.
Zuyderzee Works : Dutch engineering project converting an estuary into freshwater lake.
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